The oldest known form of writing is a type of Chinese pictographic script dating back to around 6600BCE called Jiǎhú the symbols of which were discovered on turtle plastrons and represent a very basic form of writing. Around 2000 years later emerges another of the oldest writing systems in the world; Egyptian Hieroglyphics. The oldest form of this writing has been found in Abydos which dated as far back as 3400BCE of the Predynastic period. Following this Sumerian Cuneiform came into use at around 3300BCE and was similar to hieroglyphics in the fact it was pictographic in nature. It was recorded on items of pottery, first to mark how many tokens and what kinds were inside and then used instead of tokens.
The evolution of language and specifically recording it has its roots in theology. The dominance and influence of Christianity produced the Lindesfarne Gospels around 698 to 715. The demand for religious text but the slow process of hand written manuscripts would result in the invention of the first printing press by the Chinese in 593 and its perfection in the form of the Guttenberg printing press in 1440 which was primarily used to produce Bibles known as Guttenberg Bibles. The result of Guttenberg’s printing press was instant and far reaching, not only could books be reproduced at a faster rate but it could be done so at a lower cost. Furthermore all kinds of knowledge could now be circulated to any and all who wished it, this helped the rise of both science and philosophy perhaps most noticeably in the Italian Renaissance.
With the advent of the press and its widespread usage throughout the world and the resulting democratisation of knowledge ideas could propagate and spread quickly with large consequences. For example the works of Martin Luther titled 'Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum' which translates from Latin to ‘95 Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences.' This book resonated with many people and would result in The Reformation. A product of this would be John Foxe’s ‘The Book of Martyrs’ which would shape British Protestant opinion against Catholics for years to come.
Mary was the Catholic queen and known for her intolerance of non-Catholics going as far to burn them at the stake as exemplified by Foxe’s book. Upon her death, Elizabeth, Mary’s very Protestant sister came to the throne. King Philip of Spain who had been married to the late Mary had wanted Britain to be ruled by Catholics even if this was by force and after convincing the Papal authority he was given permission to invade Britain and turn the country back to Catholicism. In 1588 the Spanish Armada set sail over 130 ships in number. However a number of factors would result in the defeat and the utter destruction of their forces in their retreat by the merciless storms which reduced their numbers to half. The storms were seen as a divine intervention and only served to reaffirm people’s faith in Protestantism.
Due to Protestant nature of Britain, many other religious denominations felt oppressed and moved to America. A symbol of this want for religious freedom was the voyage of The Mayflower which transported many Puritans to the new land of America.
The British Civil War was waged between 1642 and 1651 and involved the Parliamentarians and the Royalists. The Parliamentarians would eventually emerge victorious under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell. The restoration occurred within a decade after the Civil War had ended and Cromwell the Lord Protector had died. In 1660 Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda which made several promises under condition that he reclaimed the crown. He subsequently returned from exile and was crowned in 1661. Literature of this time period was wildly uneven reaching all extremes as greater freedom of thought brought forth many different genres of writing such as that of Locke and his ‘Essay on Human Understanding.’
In 1688 The Glorious Revolution took place in Britain as King James II was overthrown and replaced with William of Orange. In 1690 James II attempted to regain the crown through military force however despite a large army and French support he was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne by William and his army. James II would flee to France and the threat of further insurrection by the Catholics had been symbolically crushed.
As Locke furthered understanding into the human, Issac Newton would further scientific advancement in Physics with the publishing of his ‘Mathematical Principles Of Natural Philosophy.’
In 1702 the first daily newspaper in England; ‘The Daily Courant’ was published. It lasted until 1735 and detailed foreign news objectively on its single page with two columns.
Daniel Defoe was a prominent writer of the time gaining fame for his book ‘Robinson Crusoe.’ He helped to popularise the novel and was a versatile writer to the extent he was arrested for his published political opinions. He was also hired by Robert Harley, a British politician; to spy on demonstrators against the union.
In 1707 the Act of Union between England and Scotland occurred forming Great Britain. Each party had different objectives, for the Scottish it was to recover financially from the disastrous Darien Scheme. Meanwhile the British wanted to ensure the Scottish could not instil a monarch who might form alliances against England.
The Spectator, a British magazine was first published in 1828 and focuses on politics and culture. The original Tatler meanwhile was founded in 1709 by Richard Steele and focused on news and gossip leaving politics to other papers of the time. Whilst the Spectator remains around today still focusing on politics and culture the Tatler has gone through several incarnations and no longer resembles its original form.
William Hogarth was a pioneer in pictorial social commentary. Using his illustrations to mark a political point or convey a message. His work allowed him to get the Engraving Copyright Act of 1734 passed which protected engravers like himself who produced original designs.
In 1755 ‘A Dictionary of The English Language’ was published having been written by Samuel Johnson. It was a monumental piece of work especially considering it had only been written by one man. It was exported to America and influenced many other works.
The American Revolution was whereby the 13 colonies in North America allied together to break free of the British Empire and succeeded forming the United States of America. The French Revolution concerned removing the monarchy and establishing itself as a secular stateThe Battle of Waterloo saw the defeat of Emperor Napoleon by a combined British and Prussian army. It saw a final end to Napoleon’s rule and his permanent exile with the restoration of the French monarchy in his stead.
The Battle of Waterloo saw the defeat of Emperor Napoleon by a combined British and Prussian army. It saw a final end to Napoleon’s rule and his permanent exile with the restoration of the French monarchy in his stead.
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