A Modest Proposal

Jonathan Swift’s ‘A Modest Proposal’ begins by detailing the extent of poverty in Ireland. He estimates a figure of the levels of poverty and divides it out detailing the surplus of children who can’t be fed.

The piece then becomes satirical suggesting that the solution to Ireland’s problem is to eat children continuing to claim that there are so many ways that they can be prepared as a meal. Slavery would not be a viable alternative for said children for the ones young enough to be consumed would be too young for labour and those old enough for labour would be better used breeding more children for consumption and sale. 

He goes on to say that by treating children as livestock will have many benefits not only the obvious economic benefits that would be derived from such a sustainable product source it would also for example reduce the amount of domestic abuse. For example because unborn children have value then they are a product that needs to be protected to ensure profit can be gained, therefore husbands would beat their wives far less or not at all through fear of miscarriage and losing said profit.

The entire piece is an obvious piece of satire written in response to and to mock the impractical solutions being discussed and considered at the time which treated the Irish as commodities figures and percentages to be calculated.

Adam Smith + Book 3-Chapter 1-Of the Different Progress of Opulence in Different Nations.

Adam Smith:

After being schooled in moral philosophy he would become a key figure in political economics, an interest spawned from his teaching, tutoring and travels. In his life two major works were published; ‘The Theory of Moral Sentiments’ which analysed moral thinking of the time. The other more influential manuscript was ‘An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations’ which considered factors in a society that would result in a wealthy society such as a free market and the distribution of labour.

For example he argues that the specialisation of labour is crucial to increased productivity, that workers in specialised fields are able to produce more efficiently and contribute more to the production line than that of a worker who assembles the entire product each time.

Book 3-Chapter 1-Of the Different Progress of Opulence in Different Nations.

In a civilised society he suggests trade is a symbiotic relationship between the town and country. The country provides food for labour and the materials for the manufacturing of goods. The town provides the manufactured goods its wealth dependent on the acquisition of materials and sustenance from the country. 

The country purchases from the town fruits of its labour whilst the town provides a market for the surplus the country might have. This market in size and demand is reliant on the number and prosperity of those in the town. However the town does not remain reliant on the country for its sustenance. As food stuffs can be imported from other counties or even countries. Similarly the country is not reliant on the demand of the town to purchase its surplus as the option remains for the exportation of goods.

This is the idea of a free market whereby the market dictates the price of goods in context with supply and demand and native goods and imports. This he argues is better than a market regulated by the state such as that dictated by the Corn Laws of 1815.

Hume's 'Enquiry concerning human understanding' (seminar)

David Hume believed in two types of modern philosophy.

The first type holds that a man is born for action, that he places value on objects in he context of which he observes them.

This type of philosophy is of the idealist, who remarks upon the most striking observations in life and thus gains the most fame and their works are not so quickly forgotten. 

The other type of philosophy is of philosophers who spend their days attempting to further their own understandings through constant speculation and inquiry despite the hardships they might endure.

The first type of philosophy is seen as easy and obvious, a philosophy that tries to shape mans behaviour whereas the second Hume views as Accurate, abstruse and profound which sees man more passively seeking only understanding which is what it attempts to provide.

He remarks this easy and obvious philosophy is thus more applicable to the masses who may use it to shape their own minds, hearts and actions which in turn gives the philosophy more longevity in the public eye. In contrast the profound cannot be so simply applied especially when the common man may find such works intelligible. He states this is why the works of Aristotle have been quickly forgotten and that of Locke will surely follow.  

Because men are satisfied with easy philosophy and with ignorance or wiling ignorance with roots in religion, superstition or lack of scientific knowledge, they choose to reject the accurate, abstruse and profound philosophy. 

Hume argues that we cannot have this easy philosophy without the profound for it provides the basis for the former. He explains this with the analogy of the anatomist and the painter; the former provides accuracy to what may be an ugly thing and from this the painter can evoke beauty and something more pleasurable to the untrained eye.

Hume states that science of the mind, body and its various faculties is always uncertain. Yet there are speculations which are beyond doubt such as the distinctions between will, imagination and understanding.

‘Of the origin of ideas’:
Hume states the perceptions of the mind can be divided into two classes according to their force and vivacity. The lesser of these are thoughts and ideas. The others are impressions i.e. our perceptions when we see, hear, feel, love/hate, desire or will.

He goes on to say that whilst it appears the human mind has limitless creativity Hume argues it is actually confined to very narrow limits. All ideas a man can have are of ideas and impressions which is similar to Locke’s own theories.

He offers the following proof of this argument: God, which we give all the qualities of virtue and perfection is simply that, conception formed by the ideas of kindness, wisdom etc and so this complex idea is simply a combination of ideas derived from similar impressions.

Further to this he asserts another argument which can be summarised as to say that if a person has not experienced certain impressions, they cannot develop ideas associated with them. For example a blind man has no idea of colour.

To this Hume provides the counter argument, that if a man has seen all shades of blue bar one, when presented with all these shades in order will his mind be able to construe the missing piece. Hume argues no.

He goes on to state that ideas, especially the abstract are naturally faint and obscure whereas impressions remain strong and vivid and the distinctions between them are far more clear than that of confounded ideas.

Hume, Kant, causation, induction, inference and the scientific process

Causation: A theory of causation establishes the relationship between cause and effect. The simplest form of causation is that cause equals effect however more complex refutations have emerged from the likes of Kant and Hume. 

Kant’s book ‘The Critique of Pure Reason’ sought to prove that knowledge cannot transcend experience and is in part a priori. In this he analyses the distinctions between analytic and synthetic propositions and a prior and empirical propositions. 

Analytic proposition: A proposition that is self-evident and cannot contradict itself e.g. A wet cat is a cat.

Synthetic proposition: A proposition garnered from experience. 

Empirical proposition: A proposition derived from experience or observational data e.g. history or the laws of science.

A priori proposition: A proposition that may be derived from experience but when known, no longer requires observational data to affirm its certainty e.g. a mathematical proof. 

When Hume talks of causation he states that ‘Tis only causation, which produces such a connexion, as to give us assurance from the existence or action of one object, that ‘twas followed or preceded by any other circumstances by any other existence or action.’ This effectively means that causation allows us to see a relationship between two objects but does not allow us to definitively state ‘A causes B’.  Therefore he states experience gives us knowledge of cause and effect but it is not enough to know of A and B to establish cause and effect. Instead that through many instances whereby A has inferred B, A is consequently associated with B and thus establishes cause and effect between A and B which are now always conjoined. 

The scientific process uses synthetic logic in its reasoning and drawing conclusions. Science in itself cannot be one hundred percent sure on any matter linked with causation such as the effects of e.g. smoking or alcohol intake on health. They can only provide evidence which supports this and overall increase the probability that any theory propagated is true. This can be primarily seen for the theory of evolution, as this cannot be observed and proven it is simply a matter of providing evidence to the theory and the ability to refute the attacks of others. Therefore the theory of evolution is probably true due to the large amounts of evidence towards it but due to the nature of science it cannot be claimed to be an absolute truth and on these grounds it continues to be attacked by its opponents criticising the science who do not comprehend the fundamental way in which science operates.

Seminar Notes: Week 6

Joseph Addison –The Spectator No.476

Addison believes that irregularity and a lack of method in writings are only acceptable from true men of genius who have too much to say than to refine and order it for the reader.

He argues to have method in writing, to refine and order ones thoughts in discourse is better for both writer and reader. It allows the reader to better comprehend the text and remember it as the writer had in their thoughts.

Method should also be used in conversation he wishes due to its noticeable absence in debates between men.

He emphasises how debates may begin well, with clear questions but these are quickly lost as most men diverge into other topics, unable to answer the original question.

His writings portray debates as having little organisation and structure, little integrity as it is more prevalent that men avoid questions and pose other distracting questions to throw off the opponent. 

There are men who have no method yet due to their expert nature of avoiding questions and bringing in topics they are more comfortable in they gain followers too stupid to see through this guise.

Overall men of clear argument have advantage over those who don’t but those who don’t far outnumber the well prepared men of rationale. 

The Royal Exchange

The Royal Exchange details one man’s pleasure from associating with and observing merchants of all races and nationalities.

The Royal Exchange is essentially politics for merchants, where commerce between nations can be negotiated for all manner of things form food to clothes and furniture.

At this time period international trade was opening the world and nations were experiencing things such as exotic fruits they couldn’t before.

Trade had become a necessity as things as simple as meals often had ingredients derived from a multitude of different countries. 

Britain was one of the main hubs of trade and the Royal Exchange in London accommodated this. 

Riches were easily gained by these business ventures, trade allowed those with capital to invest to get far richer whilst allowing the poor to find work.